Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) is the most prominent representative of all prose, and partly poetic genres in the classical period of Italian literature. His tomb in the Florentine church of Santa Croce bears the inscription: "There is no praise worthy of him." This opinion about him is due to his fiery and disinterested patriotism. The repulsive concepts expounded by him in the treatise " Sovereign”become clear if we recall the then state of Italy, tormented by civil strife and foreign invasions. The emperor and the pope, the Germans, the French, the Spaniards, the Swiss devastated Italy; wars were started treacherously, peace treaties were made only to be broken. There was not a single sovereign who would keep his promises; good faith in political affairs did not exist. Under these impressions, the political principles of Machiavelli developed. No wonder they are alien to all the rules of honesty. Machiavelli sincerely expressed what he thought. His "Sovereign" is an exposition of the system, which then kept all the governments that fought among themselves in Italy.

Portrait of Niccolo Machiavelli. Artist Santi di Tito, second half of the 16th century

(Italian) Russian and contained a request to recognize the right of his family to the disputed lands of the Pazzi family.

Carier start

In the life of Niccolo Machiavelli, two stages can be distinguished: during the first, he was mainly involved in public affairs. In 1512, the second stage began, marked by the forced removal of Machiavelli from active politics and the writing of works that later made his name famous.

External images
	Signoria Square
	florence cathedral

Machiavelli's life passed into an interesting but dangerous era, when the Pope could have an entire army, and the rich city-states of Italy fell under the rule of foreign states - France, Spain or the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of unreliable alliances, corrupt mercenaries who abandoned their rulers without warning, when power collapsed in a few days and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event in the series of these erratic upheavals was the fall of Rome in 1527. Wealthy cities like Genoa suffered much the same as Rome did five centuries ago when it was burned down by the barbarian Germanic army.

In 1494, the army of the French King Charles VIII entered Italy and reached Florence in November. The young Piero di Lorenzo Medici, whose family ruled the city for almost 60 years, hurriedly set off for the royal camp, but only achieved the signing of a humiliating peace treaty, the surrender of several key fortresses and the payment of a huge indemnity. Piero had no legal authority to make such an agreement, still less without the sanction of the Signoria. As a result, he was expelled from Florence by the indignant people, and his house was plundered.

The monk Savonarola was placed at the head of the new embassy to the French king. During this troubled time, Savonarola became the true master of Florence. Under his influence, the Florentine Republic was restored in 1494 and the republican institutions returned. At the suggestion of Savonarola, the "Great Council" and the "Council of Eighty" were established.

After the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli was again [ ] was elected to the Council of Eighty, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs, already thanks to the authoritative recommendation of the Prime Secretary of the Republic, Marcello Adriani (Italian) Russian, a well-known humanist who was his teacher.

Formally, the First Chancellery of the Florentine Republic was in charge of foreign affairs, and the Second Chancellery was in charge of internal affairs and the city militia. But often such a distinction turned out to be very arbitrary, and current affairs were decided by the one who was more likely to succeed through connections, influence or abilities.

It was in this position that from 1499 to 1512, on behalf of the government, Niccolò carried out diplomatic missions on numerous occasions at the courts of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and at the Papal Court in Rome.

At that time, Italy was fragmented into a dozen states, in addition, the wars of France and the Holy Roman Empire for the Kingdom of Naples began. Wars then were waged by mercenary armies and Florence had to maneuver between strong rivals, and Machiavelli carried out diplomatic relations with them. In addition, the siege of the insurgent Pisa took a lot of time and effort from the government of Florence and its plenipotentiary representative to the army, Niccolo Machiavelli.

On January 14, 1501, Machiavelli was able to return to Florence again. He reached the venerable, by Florentine standards, the age of thirty-two years, held a position that provided him with a high position in society and a decent salary. In August of the same year, Niccolo married a lady from an old and illustrious family - Marietta Corsini.

The Corsini family occupied a higher rung in the social hierarchy than the Machiavelli branch to which Niccolò belonged. However, this marriage was mutually beneficial: on the one hand, kinship with Corsini represented Niccolò's ascent up the social ladder, and on the other hand, Marietta's family got the opportunity to take advantage of Machiavelli's political connections.

Niccolo felt deep sympathy for his wife, they had five children. Over the years, thanks to daily efforts and cohabitation, both in sorrow and in joy, their marriage, concluded for the sake of social convention, turned into love and trust. Remarkably, both in the first will of 1512 and in the last will of 1523, Niccolo chose his wife as the guardian of his children, although male relatives were often appointed.

Being on diplomatic business abroad for a long period, Machiavelli usually started relationships with other women.

Influence of Cesare Borgia

From 1502 to 1503, Niccolo was ambassador at the court of Duke Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, a very smart and successful military leader and ruler who expanded his possessions in central Italy with a sword and intrigues. Cesare was always bold, prudent, self-confident, firm, and sometimes cruel.

In June 1502, the victorious army of Borgia, clanging their weapons, approached the borders of Florence. The frightened republic immediately sent ambassadors to him for negotiations - Francesco Soderini, Bishop of Volterra, and Secretary of the Ten Niccolò Machiavelli. On June 24 they appeared before the Borgia. In a report to the government, Niccolò noted:

“This sovereign is beautiful, majestic and so militant that any great undertaking is a trifle for him. He does not let up if he longs for glory or new conquests, just as he knows neither weariness nor fear. ..and also won the unfailing favor of Fortune" .

In one of his early works [ ] Machiavelli noted:

Borgia has one of the most important attributes of a great man: he is a skilled adventurer and knows how to use the chance that has fallen to him to the greatest advantage for himself.

The months spent in the company of Cesare Borgia served as an impetus for Machiavelli's understanding of the ideas of "mastery of government, independent of moral principles", which were later reflected in the treatise "The Emperor". Apparently, due to a very close relationship with "Lady Luck", Cesare was very intriguing to Niccolò.

External images
	Page of the manuscript "Sovereign"
	Letter from Paolo Vettori October 10, 1513

Machiavelli constantly in his speeches and reports criticized the "soldiers of fortune", calling them treacherous, cowardly and greedy. Niccolò wanted to play down the role of the mercenaries in order to defend his proposal for a regular army that the Republic could easily control. Having its own army would allow Florence not to depend on mercenaries and French help. From Machiavelli's letter:

“The only way to gain power and strength is to pass a law that would govern the army being created and keep it in proper order. ».

In December 1505, the Ten finally commissioned Machiavelli to start creating a militia. And on February 15, a select detachment of militia pikemen paraded through the streets of Florence to the enthusiastic exclamations of the crowd; all the soldiers were in well-fitting red and white (the colors of the city's flag) uniform, "in cuirasses, armed with pikes and arquebuses." Florence has its own army.

Machiavelli became an "armed prophet".

"That is why all the armed prophets won, and all the unarmed perished, for, in addition to what has been said, it should be borne in mind that the temper of people is fickle, and if it is easy to convert them to your faith, then it is difficult to keep them in it. Therefore, you need to be prepared by force make believe those who have lost faith". Niccolo Machiavelli. Sovereign

In the future, Machiavelli was an envoy to Louis XII, Maximilian I of Habsburg, inspected fortresses, and even managed to create cavalry in the Florentine militia. He accepted the surrender of Pisa and put his signature under the surrender agreement.

When the Florentine people, having learned about the fall of Pisa, indulged in jubilation, Niccolò received a letter from his friend Agostino Vespucci: “You have done an impeccable job with your army and helped to bring closer the time when Florence regained its rightful possession.”

Filippo Casavecchia, who never doubted Niccolo's abilities, wrote: “I do not believe that idiots will comprehend the course of your thoughts, while there are few wise ones, and they are not often found. Every day I come to the conclusion that you surpass even those prophets that were born among the Jews and other nations.

Return of the Medici to Florence

Machiavelli was not dismissed by the new rulers of the city. But he made several mistakes, continuing to constantly express his thoughts on topical issues. Although no one asked him and his opinion was very different from the domestic policy pursued by the new authorities. He opposed the return of property to the returned Medici, offering to pay them simply compensation, and the next time in the appeal "To Palleschi" (II Ricordo ag Palleschi), he urged the Medici not to trust those who defected to their side after the fall of the republic.

Opala, return to service and resignation again

Machiavelli found himself in disgrace and deprived of a livelihood, and in 1513 he was also accused of conspiring against the Medici and arrested. But even under torture on the rack, he denied his involvement and was eventually released, but only thanks to an amnesty being freed from death row, Niccolo retired to his estate in Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began writing books that secured its place in the history of political philosophy.

From a letter to Niccolo Machiavelli:

I get up at sunrise and go to the grove to look at the work of woodcutters cutting down my forest, from there I follow the stream, and then to the bird current. I go with a book in my pocket, either with Dante and Petrarch, or with Tibull and Ovid. Then I go to an inn on the high road. There it is interesting to talk with people passing by, to learn about the news in foreign lands and at home, to observe how different the tastes and fantasies of people are. When the dinner hour comes, I sit with my family at a modest meal.

When evening comes, I return home and go to my workroom. At the door, I throw off my peasant dress, all covered in mud and slush, put on royal court clothes and, dressed in a worthy manner, I go to the ancient courts of the people of antiquity. There, graciously received by them, I satiate myself with the only food suitable for me, and for which I was born. There I do not hesitate to talk to them and ask about the meaning of their deeds, and they, in their inherent humanity, answer me. And for four hours I do not feel any anguish, I forget all worries, I am not afraid of poverty, I am not afraid of death, and I am all transferred to them.

Cover of the book "Mandrake"

In November 1520 he was called to Florence and received the post of historiographer. Wrote "History of Florence" in the years 1520-1525. Initially, it was only a year's work, but Niccolo was able to convince the customers of the need to continue the work. His salary was increased and the work lasted almost 5 years. The Pope, having read the book, also gave Machiavelli a prize of 100 gold florins. He wrote several plays - "Klitsia", "Belfagor", "Mandragora" - which were staged with great success.

Machiavelli was not trusted as an official of the former regime. He filed all kinds of petitions, asked friends to put in a word about him. He was entrusted with one-time diplomatic missions of the pontiff, and, finally, he received a new position when the Habsburgs began to threaten the republic. The pontiff instructed Machiavelli to go along with the military architect Pedro Navarro - a former pirate, but already a specialist in conducting a siege - to inspect the walls of Florence and strengthen them in connection with a possible siege of the city. Niccolo was chosen because he was considered an expert in military affairs: after all, he wrote an entire book “On the Art of War”, besides, an entire chapter in it was devoted to the sieges of cities - and, by common opinion, was the best in the whole book. Some of Niccolò's book advice was far from reality, but the mere fact of the authorship of such a book made him an expert in fortification in the eyes of the Pope. The support of Guicciardini and Strozzi's friends also played a role - they successfully discussed this with the pontiff.

• On May 9, 1526, the Council of the Hundred, at the request of Clement VII, established a new body in the government of Florence - the College of Five to strengthen the walls, Niccolo Machiavelli was appointed its secretary.

But Machiavelli's expectations for a return to work and well-deserved honors failed. In 1527, after Rome was sacked and the pope lost all influence over Florence, republican rule was restored in it. Machiavelli put forward his candidacy for the post of secretary of the College of Ten. But he was not elected, the new government no longer needed him.

External images of the cenotaph in his honor is in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The inscription is engraved on the monument: No epitaph can express all the greatness of this name.

Niccolò Machiavelli (Machiavelli, Italian. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli). Born May 3, 1469 in Florence - died June 21, 1527 there. Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician. He held the post of secretary of the second office in Florence, was responsible for the diplomatic relations of the republic, and the author of military-theoretical works. He was a supporter of a strong state power, for the strengthening of which he allowed the use of any means, which he expressed in the famous work "The Sovereign", published in 1532.

Niccolò Machiavelli was born in the village of San Casciano, near the city-state of Florence, in 1469, the son of Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli (1426-1500), a lawyer, and Bartolomei di Stefano Neli (1441-1496).

He had two older sisters - Primavera (1465), Margarita (1468), and a younger brother Totto (1475).

His education gave him a thorough knowledge of the Latin and Italian classics. He was familiar with the works of Josephus Flavius,. He did not study ancient Greek, but read Latin translations, and from which he drew inspiration for his historical treatises.

He became interested in politics from his youth, as evidenced by a letter dated March 9, 1498, the second that has come down to us, in which he addresses his friend Ricardo Becky, the Florentine ambassador in Rome, with a critical description of the actions of Girolamo Savonarola. The first surviving letter, dated December 2, 1497, was addressed to Cardinal Giovanni Lopez, asking him to recognize the disputed lands of the Pazzi family for his family.

Biographer Roberto Ridolfi describes Machiavelli as follows: “He was a slender man, of medium height, of a slim build. The hair was black, white skin, small head, thin face, high forehead. Very bright eyes and thin compressed lips, which always seemed to smile a little ambiguously..

In the life of Niccolo Machiavelli, two stages can be distinguished: during the first part of his life, he is mainly involved in public affairs. From 1512, the second stage begins, marked by the forced removal of Machiavelli from active politics.

Machiavelli lived in a troubled era, when the Pope could have an entire army, and the rich city-states of Italy fell one after another under the rule of foreign states - France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant changes in alliances, mercenaries who went over to the side of the enemy without warning, when power, having existed for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event in the series of these erratic upheavals was the fall of Rome in 1527. Wealthy cities like Florence and Genoa suffered much the same as Rome did 5 centuries ago when it was burnt down by the Germanic barbarian army.

In 1494 the French King Charles VIII entered Italy and arrived in Florence in November. Piero di Lorenzo Medici, whose family ruled the city for almost 60 years, was expelled as a traitor. The monk Savonarola was placed at the head of the embassy to the French king.

During this troubled time, Savonarola became the real master of Florence. Under his influence, the Florentine Republic was restored in 1494, and republican institutions were also returned. At the suggestion of Savonarola, the "Great Council" and the "Council of Eighty" were established. 4 years later with the support of Savonarola, Machiavelli entered the civil service as secretary and ambassador (in 1498).

Despite the quick disgrace and execution of Savonarola, six months later Machiavelli was again re-elected to the Council of Eighty, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs, already thanks to the authoritative recommendation of the Prime Secretary of the Republic, Marcello Adriani, a well-known humanist who was his teacher.

Between 1499 and 1512 he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and to the papal court in Rome.

On January 14, 1501, Machiavelli was able to return to Florence again, where he married Marietta di Luigi Corsini., who came from a family that occupied the same step on the social ladder as the Machiavelli family. Their marriage was an act that united two families in a mutually beneficial union, but Niccolo felt deep sympathy for his wife, they had five children. Being abroad on diplomatic business for a long period, Machiavelli usually started relationships with other women, for whom he also had tender feelings.

From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the effective town planning methods of the clerical soldier Cesare Borgia, an extremely able military leader and statesman, whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. His main tools were courage, prudence, self-confidence, firmness, and sometimes cruelty.

Historians believe that it was the months spent in the company of Cesare Borgia that served as the impetus for the birth of Machiavelli's idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"the skill of governing the state, independent of moral principles", which was subsequently reflected in the treatise "The Sovereign".

The death of Pope Alexander VI, father of Cesare Borgia, deprived Cesare of financial and political resources. The political ambitions of the Vatican have traditionally been limited by the fact that communes were scattered to the north of the Papal States, de facto ruled by independent princes from local feudal families - Montefeltro, Malatesta and Bentivoglio. Alternating sieges with political assassinations, Cesare and Alexander in a few years united all of Umbria, Emilia and Romagna under their rule. But the duchy of Romagna again began to disintegrate into small possessions, while the noble families of Imola and Rimini took possession of Emilia.

After a short 27-day pontificate of Pius III, Machiavelli was sent to Rome on October 24, 1503, where at the conclave on November 1, Julius II was elected pope, marked by history as one of the most militant popes.

In a letter dated 24 November, Machiavelli attempted to anticipate the political intentions of the new pope, whose main opponents were Venice and France, which played into the hands of Florence, which was wary of Venetian expansionist ambitions. On the same day, November 24, in Rome, Machiavelli receives news of the birth of his second child, Bernardo.

In the house of the gonfalonier Soderini, Machiavelli discusses plans to create a people's militia in Florence to replace the city guard, consisting of mercenary soldiers who seemed to Machiavelli to be traitors. Machiavelli was the first in the history of Florence to create a professional army. It was thanks to the creation of a combat-ready professional army in Florence that Soderini managed to return the Republic of Pisa, which had seceded in 1494.

Between 1503 and 1506 Machiavelli was in charge of the Florentine guard, including the defense of the city. He did not trust mercenaries (a position explained in detail in Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius and in The Sovereign) and preferred a militia formed from citizens.

By 1512, the Holy League, under the leadership of Pope Julius II, had secured the withdrawal of French troops from Italy. The pope then turned his troops against France's Italian allies. Florence was "granted" by Julius II to his loyal supporter, Cardinal Giovanni Medici, who commanded the troops in the last battle with the French.

On September 1, 1512, Giovanni de' Medici, the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, entered the city of his ancestors, restoring his family's rule over Florence. The Republic was abolished.

Machiavelli fell into disgrace, and in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy and arrested.

Despite the severity of his imprisonment and torture, he denied any involvement and was eventually released. He retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began to write treatises which secured his place in the history of political philosophy.

In November 1520 he was called to Florence and received the position of historiographer. In 1520-1525 he wrote the History of Florence.

Machiavelli died at San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence, in 1527. The location of his grave is unknown. However, a cenotaph in his honor is in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The inscription is engraved on the monument: No epitaph can express all the greatness of this name.

The writings of Niccolo Machiavelli:

"The Sovereign" (Il Principe)

Reasoning:

"Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius" (Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio)
Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)
"On how to deal with the rebellious inhabitants of Valdichiana" (Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati) (1502)
“Description of how Duke Valentino got rid of Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliveretto Da Fermo, Signor Paolo and Duke Gravina Orsini” (Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell’ ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc.) (1502)
Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502)
Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520)

Dialogues:

Della lingua (1514)

Lyrics:

Decennale primo poem (1506)
Decennale secondo poem (1509)
Asino d'oro (1517), verse arrangement of The Golden Ass

Biographies:

"The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca" (Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca) (1520)

Other:

Ritratti delle cose dell' Alemagna (1508-1512)
Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510)
"On the art of war" (1519-1520)
Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520)
History of Florence (1520-1525), multi-volume history of Florence
Frammenti storici (1525)

Plays:

Andria (1517) - translation of Terence's comedy
La Mandragola, comedy (1518)
Clizia (1525), comedy in prose.

Novels:

Machiavelli, Italian. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli

Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician

short biography

Niccolo Machiavelli(Machiavelli, Italian. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli; May 3, 1469, Florence - June 22, 1527, ibid) - Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician - served in Florence as secretary of the second office, was responsible for the diplomatic relations of the republic , author of military-theoretical works. He was a supporter of a strong state power, for the strengthening of which he allowed the use of any means, which he expressed in the famous work "The Sovereign", published in 1532.

Born in the village of San Casciano, near the city-state of Florence, in 1469, in the family of Bernardo di Niccolo Machiavelli (1426-1500), a lawyer, and Bartolomei di Stefano Neli (1441-1496). He had two older sisters - Primavera (1465), Margarita (1468), and a younger brother Totto (1475). His education gave him a thorough knowledge of the Latin and Italian classics. He was familiar with the works of Titus Livius, Josephus Flavius, Cicero, Macrobius. He did not study ancient Greek, but read the Latin translations of Thucydides, Polybius and Plutarch, from whom he drew inspiration for his historical treatises.

He became interested in politics from his youth, as evidenced by a letter dated March 9, 1498, the second that has come down to us, in which he addresses his friend Ricardo Becky, the Florentine ambassador in Rome, with a critical description of the actions of Girolamo Savonarola. The first surviving letter, dated December 2, 1497, was addressed to Cardinal Giovanni Lopez (Russian) Italian, asking him to recognize the disputed lands of the Pazzi family for his family.

Historian-biographer Roberto Ridolfi (Russian) Italian. describes Machiavelli as follows: “He was a slender man, of medium height, of a thin build. The hair was black, white skin, small head, thin face, high forehead. Very bright eyes and thin compressed lips, which always seemed to smile a little ambiguously.

Career

In the life of Niccolo Machiavelli, two stages can be distinguished: during the first part of his life, he is mainly involved in public affairs. From 1512, the second stage begins, marked by the forced removal of Machiavelli from active politics.

Niccolo Machiavelli, a statue at the entrance to the Uffizi Gallery in Florence

Machiavelli lived in a turbulent era, when the Pope could have an entire army, and the rich city-states of Italy fell one after another under the rule of foreign states - France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant changes in alliances, mercenaries who went over to the side of the enemy without warning, when power, having existed for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event in the series of these erratic upheavals was the fall of Rome in 1527. Wealthy cities like Florence and Genoa endured much the same as Rome did five centuries ago when it was burnt down by the Germanic barbarian army.

In 1494 the French King Charles VIII entered Italy and arrived in Florence in November. Piero di Lorenzo Medici, whose family ruled the city for almost 60 years, was expelled as a traitor. The monk Savonarola was placed at the head of the embassy to the French king. During this troubled time, Savonarola became the real master of Florence. Under his influence, the Florentine Republic was restored in 1494, and republican institutions were also returned. At the suggestion of Savonarola, the "Great Council" and the "Council of Eighty" were established. 4 years later, with the support of Savonarola, Machiavelli entered the civil service, as secretary and ambassador (in 1498). Despite the quick disgrace and execution of Savonarola, six months later Machiavelli was again re-elected to the Council of Eighty, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs, already thanks to the authoritative recommendation of the Prime Secretary of the Republic, Marcello Adriani (Russian) Italian, a well-known humanist who was his teacher. Between 1499 and 1512 he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and to the papal court in Rome.

On January 14, 1501, Machiavelli was able to return to Florence again, where he married Marietta di Luigi Corsini, who came from a family that occupied the same step on the social ladder as the Machiavelli family. Their marriage was an act that united two families in a mutually beneficial union, but Niccolo felt deep sympathy for his wife, they had five children. Being abroad on diplomatic business for a long period, Machiavelli usually started relationships with other women, for whom he also had tender feelings.

From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the effective town planning methods of the clerical soldier Cesare Borgia, an extremely able military leader and statesman, whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. His main tools were courage, prudence, self-confidence, firmness, and sometimes cruelty. In one of his early works, Machiavelli notes:

Borgia has one of the most important attributes of a great man: he is a skilled adventurer and knows how to use the chance that has fallen to him to the greatest advantage for himself.

Historians believe that it was the months spent in the company of Cesare Borgia that served as the impetus for the birth of Machiavelli's idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"the skill of governing the state, independent of moral principles", which was subsequently reflected in the treatise "The Emperor".

The death of Pope Alexander VI, father of Cesare Borgia, deprived Cesare of financial and political resources. The political ambitions of the Vatican were traditionally limited by the fact that communes were scattered throughout the Papal States, de facto ruled by independent princes from local feudal families - Montefeltro, Malatesta and Bentivoglio. Alternating sieges with political assassinations, Cesare and Alexander in a few years united all of Umbria, Emilia and Romagna under their rule.

Mission to Rome

After a short 27-day pontificate of Pius III, Machiavelli was sent to Rome on October 24, 1503, where at the conclave on November 1, Pope Julius II, noted by history as one of the most militant popes, was elected. In a letter dated 24 November, Machiavelli attempted to anticipate the political intentions of the new pope, whose main opponents were Venice and France, which played into the hands of Florence, which was wary of Venetian expansionist ambitions. On the same day, November 24, in Rome, Machiavelli receives news of the birth of his second child, Bernardo.

In the house of the gonfalonier Soderini, Machiavelli discusses plans to create a people's militia in Florence to replace the city guard, which consisted of hired soldiers who seemed to Machiavelli traitors. Machiavelli was the first in the history of Florence to create a professional army. It was thanks to the creation of a combat-ready professional army in Florence that Soderini managed to return the Republic of Pisa, which had seceded in 1494.

In 1503-1506 Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine guard, including the defense of the city. He did not trust mercenaries (a position explained in detail in Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius and in The Sovereign) and preferred a militia formed from citizens.

Return of the Medici to Florence

By 1512, the Holy League, under the leadership of Pope Julius II, had secured the withdrawal of French troops from Italy. The pope then turned his troops against France's Italian allies. Florence was "granted" by Julius II to his loyal supporter, Cardinal Giovanni Medici, who commanded the troops in the last battle with the French. On September 1, 1512, Giovanni de' Medici, the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, entered the city of his ancestors, restoring his family's rule over Florence. The Republic was abolished. The mindset of Machiavelli in the last years of his service is evidenced by his letters, in particular, by Francesco Vettori.

Opala

Machiavelli fell into disgrace, and in 1513 he was accused of conspiring against the Medici and arrested. Despite the severity of his imprisonment and torture, he denied any involvement and was eventually released. He retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began to write treatises that secured his place in the history of political philosophy.

From a letter to Niccolo Machiavelli:

I get up at sunrise and go to the grove to look at the work of woodcutters cutting down my forest, from there I follow the stream, and then to the bird current. I go with a book in my pocket, either with Dante and Petrarch, or with Tibull and Ovid. Then I go to an inn on the high road. There it is interesting to talk with people passing by, to learn about the news in foreign lands and at home, to observe how different the tastes and fantasies of people are. When the dinner hour comes, I sit with my family at a modest meal. After dinner, I return again to the inn, where its owner, the butcher, the miller, and two bricklayers usually already gathered. With them I spend the rest of the day playing cards...

When evening comes, I return home and go to my workroom. At the door, I throw off my peasant dress, all covered in mud and slush, put on royal court clothes and, dressed in a worthy manner, I go to the ancient courts of the people of antiquity. There, graciously received by them, I satiate myself with the only food suitable for me, and for which I was born. There I do not hesitate to talk to them and ask about the meaning of their deeds, and they, in their inherent humanity, answer me. And for four hours I do not feel any anguish, I forget all worries, I am not afraid of poverty, I am not afraid of death, and I am all transferred to them.

In November 1520 he was called to Florence and received the position of historiographer. Wrote the "History of Florence" in the years 1520-1525.

Machiavelli's hopes for the heyday of Florence and his own career were deceived. In 1527, after Rome was given to the Spaniards for plunder, which once again showed the full extent of the fall of Italy, republican rule was restored in Florence, which lasted three years. The dream of Machiavelli, who returned from the front, to get the position of secretary of the College of Ten did not come true. The new government did not notice him anymore. The spirit of Machiavelli was broken, his health was undermined, and the life of the thinker ended on June 22, 1527 in San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence. The location of his grave is unknown; however, a cenotaph in his honor is in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The inscription is engraved on the monument: No epitaph can express all the greatness of this name.

Worldview and ideas

Historically, Machiavelli is usually portrayed as a subtle cynic who believes that political behavior is based on profit and power, and that politics should be based on power, and not on morality, which can be neglected if there is a good goal. However, in his works, Machiavelli shows that it is most beneficial for a ruler to rely on the people, for which it is necessary to respect their freedoms and take care of their well-being. Dishonesty he allows only in relation to enemies, and cruelty - only to rebels, whose activities can lead to more damage.

In the works "The Sovereign" and "Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius" Machiavelli considers the state as political state of society: the relationship of those in power and subject, the presence of a properly arranged, organized political power, institutions, laws.

Machiavelli calls politics "experimental science" which clarifies the past, guides the present and is able to predict the future.

Machiavelli is one of the few Renaissance figures who, in his works, raised the question of the role of the personality of the ruler. Based on the realities of contemporary Italy, which suffered from feudal fragmentation, he believed that it was better to have a strong, albeit devoid of remorse, sovereign at the head of a single country than rival appanage rulers. Thus, Machiavelli raised in philosophy and history the question of the relationship between moral norms and political expediency.

Machiavelli despised the plebs, the lower classes of the city and the church clergy of the Vatican. He sympathized with the stratum of wealthy and active citizens. Developing the canons of the political behavior of the individual, he idealized and set as an example the ethics and laws of pre-Christian Rome. He wrote with regret about the exploits of ancient heroes and criticized those forces that, in his opinion, manipulated Holy Scripture and used it for their own purposes, which proves the following expression of his idea: “It is precisely because of this kind of education and such a false interpretation of our religion on the world does not have the same number of republics as it was in antiquity, and the consequence of this is that the same love for freedom is not noticeable among the people now, which was at that time.

According to Machiavelli, the most viable states in the history of the civilized world were those republics whose citizens had the greatest degree of freedom, independently determining their future fate. He considered the independence, power and greatness of the state to be the ideal to which one can go by any means, without thinking about the moral background of the activity and about civil rights. Machiavelli was the author of the term "state interest", which justified the claims of the state to the right to act outside the law, which it is intended to guarantee, in cases where this is in the "higher state interests". The ruler sets as his goal the success and prosperity of the state, while morality and goodness fade into another plane. The work "The Sovereign" is a kind of political technology instruction on the capture, retention and use of state power:

Government consists mainly in making your subjects neither able nor willing to harm you, and this is achieved when you deprive them of any opportunity to harm you in any way, or shower them with such favors that it would be foolish of them to wish a change of fate. .

Criticism and historical significance

The first critics of Machiavelli were Tommaso Campanella and Jean Bodin. The latter agreed with Machiavelli in the opinion that the state is the pinnacle of the economic, social and cultural historical development of civilization.

In 1546, a material was distributed among the participants of the Council of Trent, where it was said that the Machiavellian "Sovereign" written by the hand of Satan. Beginning in 1559, all of his writings were included in the first Index of Forbidden Books.

The most famous attempt at a literary refutation of Machiavelli was Frederick the Great's Antimachiavelli, written in 1740. Friedrich wrote: I now dare to defend humanity from the monster that wants to destroy it; armed with reason and justice, I dare to challenge sophistry and crime; and I present my thoughts on Machiavelli's "Prince" - chapter by chapter - so that after taking the poison, the antidote can also be found immediately..

The writings of Machiavelli testified to the beginning of a new era in the development of the political philosophy of the West: reflections on the problems of politics, according to Machiavelli, should have ceased to be regulated by theological norms or the axioms of morality. This was the end of the philosophy of Blessed Augustine: all the ideas and all the activities of Machiavelli were created in the name of the City of Man, and not the City of God. Politics has already established itself as an independent object of study - the art of creating and strengthening the institution of state power.

However, some modern historians believe that in fact Machiavelli professed traditional values, and in his work The Sovereign nothing more than simply ridiculed despotism in satirical tones. Thus, the historian Garrett Mattingly writes in his article: “The assertion that this little book [The Prince] was a serious scientific treatise on government contradicts everything we know about the life of Machiavelli, his writings and his era.”

With all this, the works of Machiavelli became one of the most significant events and only in the 16th-18th centuries influenced the works of B. Spinoza, F. Bacon, D. Hume, M. Montaigne, R. Descartes, Sh-L. Montesquieu, Voltaire, D. Diderot, P. Holbach, J. Bodin, G.-B. Mably, P. Bayle and many others.

Compositions

• Reasoning:
  • "Sovereign" ( Il Principe)
  • "Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius" ( Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio) (first edition - 1531)
  • Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)
  • "On how to deal with the rebellious inhabitants of Valdikiana" ( Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati) (1502)
  • "Description of how Duke Valentino got rid of Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliveretto Da Fermo, Signor Paolo and Duke Gravina Orsini" ( Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell' ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc.)(1502)
  • Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502)
  • Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520)
• Dialogues:
  • Della lingua (1514)
• Lyrics:
  • Poem Decennale primo (1506)
  • Poem Decennale secondo (1509)
  • Asino d'oro (1517), verse arrangement of The Golden Ass
• Biographies:
  • "The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca" ( Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca) (1520)
• Other:
  • Ritratti delle cose dell' Alemagna (1508-1512)
  • Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510)
  • "On the art of war" (1519-1520)
  • Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520)
  • History of Florence (1520-1525), multi-volume history of Florence
  • Frammenti storici (1525)
• Plays:
  • Andria (1517) - translation of Terence's comedy
  • La Mandragola, comedy (1518)
  • Clizia (1525), prose comedy
• Novels:
  • Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515)

"Sovereign"

Image in culture

In fiction

He is the subject of William Somerset Maugham's "Then and Now".

(1469-1527) Italian politician

Niccolo Machiavelli went down in history primarily as the author of two famous political treatises. But in fact, he wrote several dozen works covering a variety of areas of knowledge, as well as artistic works - the comedies Mandragora (1518), Clitia (1525) and poems. Machiavelli himself considered himself a historian, and his contemporaries called him the soul of Florence.

Niccolo came from an ancient Tuscan family, the first mention of which dates back to the early Middle Ages. In the 9th century, the Machiavellis were among the richest landowners. Niccolo's paternal ancestors owned vast estates and castles located in the Arno Valley.

However, by the time of the birth of his son, the Machiavelli family had become impoverished, only a small estate remained of the vast estates, so his father could only boast of a high-profile title. Niccolo's mother belonged to a well-known merchant family. In Florence, such a marriage between the offspring of an ancient family and the daughter of a wealthy merchant was considered common. Niccolo was the youngest child in a large family of two sons and two daughters.

When he was seven years old, a home teacher began to study with him, who taught the boy to read and write fluently in Latin. Four years later, Niccolo was sent to the famous Florentine school of P. Ronchiglioni. All the years of study, Machiavelli was considered the best student, and teachers predicted a brilliant career for him at one of the universities.

Niccolo's youth fell on the reign of Lorenzo de' Medici, nicknamed the Magnificent. My father served at the court of the duke, and the Florentine nobility gathered almost daily in Machiavelli's house. But the family had little money, and Niccolo's studies at the university were out of the question. To give his son a profession, his father began to practice law with him. Niccolo turned out to be an extremely capable student and after a few months becomes his father's assistant. After the sudden death of the elder Machiavelli, Niccolo becomes the sole breadwinner of the family. With the help of friends, he enters the civil service.

A brilliant knowledge of Latin and Florentine law helped him to compete for the position of secretary of the Great Council. His further career was swift. In just a few months, he received the post of Chancellor-Secretary of the Council of Ten - that was the name of the main state body for managing all the affairs of the Florentine Republic. Thus, in the hands of Machiavelli are all the threads of both domestic and foreign policy of the republic.

He was chancellor for more than fourteen years, was in charge of the military and diplomatic affairs of the republic, many times went on the most important trips - to the Vatican to the papal throne, to various cities of Italy.

Niccolo Machiavelli also proved himself to be a skilled diplomat who knew how to find a way out of the most intractable situations. On behalf of the French king, the German emperor, the Pope, he resolved issues of war and peace, settled disputed territorial problems, and financial conflicts.

It seemed that Machiavelli was one of the most famous political and diplomatic figures of the early 16th century, and nothing could interfere with his further career.

But the active political struggle in Florence led to the fact that P. Soderini, who sympathized with him, was overthrown, representatives of the Medici family came to power in the city, who expelled all supporters of the Florentine Republic from service. Niccolo Machiavelli was captured and thrown into prison, where he was tortured, but a year later he was released and sent into exile in the family estate of Sant'Andrea, located near San Casciano. Only in 1525 was he able to return to Florence again.

Finding himself in silence and solitude, Machiavelli takes up his pen and begins to work on two books: Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius (1513-1521) and the treatise The Emperor (1513).

In the first of them, Niccolo Machiavelli formally analyzes the history of Rome, but in fact, he does not so much analyze the work of a famous historian, but rather sets out his own views on the problems of the state structure of contemporary society. The book is the result of many years of observation and reflection. Machiavelli declares Florence the successor to the Roman Republic. He considers republican Rome an ideal model of a state in which there should be opponents and supporters of the existing system.

His views on the place of religion in society are very peculiar. He believes that the ancient Roman religion is better suited to the republican system of government than the cumbersome bureaucratic machine that existed in the Vatican. True, he does not doubt the very foundations of Catholicism, only people who serve the church are criticized. Machiavelli for the first time openly writes that it is the policy of the papacy that contributes to the strengthening of the fragmentation of Italy. Of course, he could not print such a book in his homeland, so he sends the manuscript to friends in Florence and continues to work on the treatise The Emperor.

The researcher analyzes the role and place of the head of state in the system of government, considers various forms of government, from authoritarian to democratic, and comes to the conclusion that in any case, the personality and behavior of the ruler play a key role.

For the first time in European history, Niccolo Machiavelli shows that the most viable form is the so-called "stata", a large independent centralized state. He examines the behavior of the ruler and comes to the conclusion that any power is inevitably associated with certain manifestations of cruelty. Machiavelli considers such manifestations to be natural, but at the same time warns the rulers against excessively large sacrifices. He is convinced that any ruler is obliged to respect fellow citizens and take care of their prosperity. Interestingly, Machiavelli was the first to analyze the personal qualities that a ruler should have. In particular, he considered

that the ruler must be two-faced in order to hide hatred of enemies under the guise of a welcoming master of his country.

The ruler must always be decisive. In order for the people to rally around him, it is necessary to set a simple and realistic goal. However, it is by no means important that it be realistically achievable. In order to achieve it, one should stop at no means. If the goal is "historically progressive, nationally justified, solves the main problem of the era, establishing order, then the people forget the means to achieve it."

Niccolo Machiavelli attached great importance to the connection of the political state of society with the methods of exercising state power. He showed that for the stability of the system, it is important to observe the ideas, traditions, and stereotypes that are emerging in the public mind. In other words, the strength of any state is based on the masses.

Machiavelli's arguments about the so-called political elite are interesting. He distinguishes two types - "lion elite" and "fox elite". The first is characterized by a rigid authoritarian movement towards the goal. For the second - compromise maneuvering. The main conflicts, writes Machiavelli, unfold between the elite in power and the elite striving for power.

At the same time, as a historian, Niccolo Machiavelli gives an analytical picture of the existence of totalitarian regimes, pointing out the possibility of their appearance in a given situation. In fact, Machiavelli's book laid the foundations of political science - a science that appeared only many centuries later. The treatise "The Sovereign" was a reference book for many political figures. It is known that Napoleon, Churchill, and Stalin read it.

Like the previous book, the treatise began to diverge in numerous manuscripts. Soon they meet him at the Medici court. The official reaction was unexpected: Machiavelli was invited to Florence and offered a government post. He becomes an adviser to the duke's court.

Almost weekly, Niccolo Machiavelli speaks at the famous Medici Academy, where he makes presentations on the possible political and social structure of Florence. He tries to propagate his views and writes a “Note on the State System in Florence”, where he tries to convince the political and spiritual rulers to give more power to commercial and industrial groups. The work goes first to the duke, and then to Pope Leo X. The pope reacted favorably to the work of Machiavelli and even invited him to the Vatican to clarify what he was going to do specifically.

The scientist becomes the Pope's adviser. He spends a little over a year in the Vatican, and then returns to his homeland, as the Florentine authorities instruct him to write the history of Florence.

At the same time he is engaged in diplomatic work. He is appointed representative of Florence in the election of General of the Order of the Minorites. Machiavelli brilliantly copes with the assignment, but refuses the proposal that followed soon after. He no longer wants to hold the position of secretary of the government, believing that only independence will allow him to maintain an impartial position as a historian.

Work on the "History of Florence" required three years of hard work from Machiavelli. Only in the middle of 1525 did he send the first eight books to Pope Clement VII. Having received his approval, Niccolo Machiavelli continues to work, but at this time the Florentine government starts a war with the Duchy of Milan, who dreamed of subordinating Florence to their power.

Machiavelli takes an active part in organizing the defense of the city: he recruits militias, develops a plan for the defense of the city walls. On his recommendation, a special militia was established in the city to protect order.

However, soon the internecine war between Milan and Florence subsides - allied Spanish-German troops invade Italy.

In November 1526, as a military adviser to G. Medici, Niccolò Machiavelli was present at the battle of Governolo. The defeat of the Roman troops and the death of G. Medici cause an upsurge of republican sentiment in Florence.

Meanwhile, Machiavelli continues to serve as a military adviser and moves to the town of Civi ta Vecchia, where he is placed at the disposal of Admiral Doria, who commanded the Italian fleet. When Machiavelli learns that an uprising has begun in Florence, he drops everything and hurries back.

He believed that only by his presence could he bring maximum benefit to the republic. However, after Machiavelli's arrival, he unexpectedly falls ill and dies of gastric bleeding a few days later.

His funeral gathered almost all the inhabitants of the city. At their request, the remains of Niccolo Machiavelli were buried in the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Croce next to other prominent countrymen - Boccaccio, Petrarch.

The writings of Machiavelli were not forgotten, in 1531 both treatises of the scientist and a collection of his literary works were published in Italy. So gradually they become the property of the scientific and general public.

Traditionally, there are two perceptions of the creative heritage of Machiavelli. On the one hand, they see him as a supporter of the totalitarian regime, who was looking for a way out of the current situation in a strong collective will, which could be formed by a strong-willed and strong sovereign. Others see Niccolo Machiavelli as a dangerous rebel, able to object to the rulers of this world, not accepting the conditions of their game, and at the same time faithfully serving those whom he revered. It is no coincidence that in Tsarist Russia his books were repeatedly banned for publication, and in the USSR he was practically not published.

Over time, the name of Machiavelli began to be perceived as a symbol - the problems posed by him turned out to be so large-scale. In the 16th-17th centuries, they turned to him for help in political and diplomatic art, in the 18th century - for an explanation of the methods and techniques of government. For 19th-century historians, Niccolò Machiavelli was an authoritative chronicler, and in the 20th century he was referred to as a classic of political sociology. But no one disputed the importance of Machiavelli as the first of a galaxy of outstanding thinkers at the turn of the New Age - Jean Bodin, G. Grotius, T. Hobbes, J. Vico, who created the science of political science in different countries.