Niccolò Machiavelli (born May 3, 1469 - died June 21, 1527) - Italian thinker, writer, politician (he held the post of Secretary of State in Florence).

Niccolo Machiavelli was born in the village of San Casciano near the city-state of Florence, Italy, in 1469, the second son of Bernardo di Nicolò Machiavelli (1426–1500), a lawyer, and Bartolommea di Stefano Neli. His education gave him a thorough knowledge of the Latin and Italian classics. Machiavelli was born into a tumultuous era in which the pope could lead armies, and the wealthy city-states of Italy fell one by one into the hands of foreign France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant change of alliances, mercenaries who went over to the side of rivals without warning, when power, having existed for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event during this messy upheaval was the fall of Rome in 1527. Wealthy cities like Florence and Genoa suffered much the same as Rome did 12 centuries ago when it was burnt down by the German army.

The end justifies the means.

Machiavelli Niccolo

In 1494, Florence restored the Republic and removed the Medici family, the city's rulers for almost 60 years. Machiavelli entered the civil service as secretary and ambassador in 1498.

Machiavelli was placed on the Council responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs. Between 1499 and 1512 he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and to the papal court in Rome. From 1502 to 1503 he was a witness to the effective town planning methods of the church soldier Cesare Borgia, an extremely capable military leader and statesman, whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. His main tools were courage, prudence, self-confidence, firmness, and sometimes cruelty.

From 1503-1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia, including the defense of the city. He did not trust mercenaries (a position explained in detail in Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius and in The Sovereign) and preferred a militia formed from citizens. In August 1512, after a confusing series of battles, agreements and alliances, the Medici, with the help of Pope Julius II, restored power in Florence and the republic was abolished. Machiavelli, who played a significant role in the government of the republic, fell into disgrace; in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy and arrested. Against all odds, he denied any involvement and was eventually released. He retired to his estate at Sant`Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began to write treatises which secured his place in the history of political philosophy. Machiavelli died at San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence, in 1527. The location of his grave is unknown; however, a cenotaph in his honor is in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence.

He was a supporter of strong state power, allowing, if necessary, the use of any means to strengthen it ("Prince", published in 1532). Author of military-theoretical works. A typical representative of humanism - the secular worldview of the Renaissance.

In the works “The Sovereign” and “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius”, Machiavelli considers the state as the political state of society: the relationship of those who rule and those who are subject, the presence of an appropriately organized, organized political power, institutions, and laws. Machiavelli calls politics an "experimental science" that clarifies the past, guides the present, and is able to predict the future.

And you need to know that there is no business whose organization would be more difficult, its conduct more dangerous, and success more doubtful than replacing the old order with a new one.

Machiavelli Niccolo

Historically, Machiavelli is usually portrayed as a subtle cynic who believes that political behavior is based on profit and power, and that politics should be based on power, and not on morality, which can be neglected if there is a good goal. However, such ideas should rather be attributed to the historically formed image of Machiavelli than to objective reality. Perhaps the mentioned image was influenced by a direct, honest approach, Machiavelli's ability to call a spade a spade, as well as the perception of contemporaries who viewed his works through the prism of their own religious, idealistic ideas, and the approaching era of sentimentalism and romanticism. In the 21st century, the writings of Machiavelli will hardly seem more cynical than any newspaper article. In addition, human psychology should be taken into account here: smart people inspire fear because of their incomprehensibility, therefore, modern politicians, working on their image, try to appear understandable to the masses.

The Italian writer and philosopher Machiavelli Niccolo was an important statesman in Florence, holding the position of secretary in charge of foreign policy. But he was much more famous for the books he wrote, among which the political treatise "The Sovereign" stands apart.

Biography of the writer

The future writer and thinker Machiavelli Niccolo was born in the suburbs of Florence in 1469. His father was a lawyer. He did everything so that his son received the best education for those times. For this purpose, there was no better place than Italy. The main storehouse of knowledge for Machiavelli was the Latin language, in which he read a huge amount of literature. Desk books for him were the works of ancient authors: Macrobius, Cicero, and Titus Livius. The young man was fond of history. Later, these tastes were reflected in his own work. The key works for the writer were the works of the ancient Greeks Plutarch, Polybius and Thucydides.

Machiavelli Niccolo began his civil service at a time when Italy was suffering from wars between numerous cities, principalities and republics. A special place was occupied by the Pope, who at the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. was not just a religious pontiff, but also a significant political figure. The fragmentation of Italy and the absence of a unified national state made rich cities a tasty morsel for other major powers - France, the Holy Roman Empire and the growing power of colonial Spain. The tangle of interests was very complex, which led to the birth and dissolution of political alliances. The fateful and striking events that Machiavelli Niccolo witnessed greatly influenced not only his professionalism, but also his worldview.

Philosophical views

The ideas set forth by Machiavelli in his books significantly influenced the perception of politics by society. The author was the first to review and describe in detail all models of behavior of rulers. In the book The Sovereign, he directly stated that the political interests of the state should prevail over agreements and other conventions. Because of this point of view, the thinker is considered an exemplary cynic who will stop at nothing to achieve his goal. He explained state unscrupulousness by serving a higher good goal.

Niccolo Machiavelli, whose philosophy was born as a result of personal impressions of the state of Italian society at the beginning of the 16th century, did not only talk about the benefits of this or that strategy. On the pages of his books, he described in detail the structure of the state, the principles of its work and the relationships within this system. The thinker proposed the thesis that politics is a science that has its own laws and rules. Niccolo Machiavelli believed that a person who has mastered this subject to perfection can predict the future or determine the outcome of a particular process (war, reform, etc.).

The Importance of Machiavelli's Ideas

The Florentine writer of the Renaissance introduced many new topics for discussion into the humanities. His dispute about the expediency and compliance with moral standards raised a sharp question over which many philosophical schools and teachings are still arguing.

Reasoning about the role of the personality of the ruler in history also first appeared from the pen of Niccolò Machiavelli. The ideas of the thinker led him to the conclusion that in feudal fragmentation (in which, for example, Italy was), the character of the sovereign replaces all power institutions, which harms the inhabitants of his country. In other words, in a fragmented state, the paranoia or weakness of the ruler leads to ten times worse consequences. During his life, Machiavelli saw enough such picturesque examples thanks to the Italian principalities and republics, where power swung from side to side like a pendulum. Often such fluctuations led to wars and other disasters that hit the common population the hardest.

History of the "Sovereign"

It should be noted that the treatise "The Prince" was written as a classic application manual intended for Italian politicians. This style of presentation made the book unique for its time. It was a carefully systematized work, in which all thoughts were presented in the form of theses, supported by real examples and logical reasoning. The Prince was published in 1532, five years after the death of Niccolò Machiavelli. The views of the former Florentine official immediately resonated with the broadest public.

The book became a reference book for many politicians and statesmen of the following centuries. It is still being actively reprinted and is one of the pillars of the humanities devoted to society and institutions of power. The main material for writing the book was the experience of the fall of the Florentine Republic, which Niccolò Machiavelli experienced. Quotes from the treatise were included in various textbooks, which were used to teach civil servants of various Italian principalities.

The heredity of power

The author divided his work into 26 chapters, in each of which he addressed a particular political issue. A deep knowledge of the history of Niccolo by ancient authors often comes across on the pages) made it possible to prove their guesses on the experience of the ancient era. For example, he devoted a whole chapter to the fate of the Persian king Darius, who was captured. In his essay, the writer assessed the fall of the state and gave several arguments about why the country did not rebel after the death of the young commander.

The question of the types of heredity of power was of great interest to Niccolò Machiavelli. Politics, in his opinion, directly depended on how the throne passes from predecessor to successor. If the throne is transferred in a reliable way, the state will not be threatened by unrest and crises. At the same time, the book shows several ways to maintain tyrannical power, the author of which was Niccolò Machiavelli. In short, the sovereign can move to a new occupied territory in order to directly monitor local moods himself. A striking example of such a strategy was the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the Turkish sultan moved his capital to this city and renamed it Istanbul.

Preservation of the state

The author tried to explain in detail to the reader how to keep a captured foreign country. For this, according to the theses of the writer, there are two ways - military and peaceful. At the same time, both methods are acceptable, and they must be skillfully combined in order to simultaneously appease and frighten the population. Machiavelli was a supporter of the creation of colonies on acquired lands (approximately in the form that the ancient Greeks or Italian maritime republics did). In the same chapter, the author deduced the golden rule: the sovereign needs to support the weak and weaken the strong in order to maintain balance within the country. The absence of powerful counter-movements helps to maintain the authorities' monopoly on violence in the state, which is one of the main signs of a reliable and stable government.

This is how Niccolò Machiavelli described how to solve this problem. The writer's philosophy was formed as a combination of his own managerial experience in Florence and historical knowledge.

The role of personality in history

Since Machiavelli paid great attention to the question of the importance of the individual in history, he also compiled a short sketch of the qualities that an effective sovereign should possess. The Italian writer emphasized stinginess, criticizing generous rulers who were wasting their treasury. As a rule, such autocrats are forced to resort to raising taxes in the event of a war or other critical situation, which is extremely annoying to the population.

Machiavelli justified the rigidity of the rulers within the state. He believed that it was precisely such a policy that helped society avoid unnecessary unrest and unrest. If, for example, a sovereign prematurely executes people prone to rebellion, he will kill a few people, while saving the rest of the population from unnecessary bloodshed. This thesis again repeats the example of the author's philosophy that the suffering of individual people is nothing compared to the interests of the whole country.

The need for rigidity of rulers

The Florentine writer often repeated the idea that human nature is fickle, and most of the people around are a bunch of weak and greedy creatures. Therefore, Machiavelli continued, it is necessary for the sovereign to inspire awe among his subjects. This will help maintain discipline within the country.

As an example, he cited the experience of the legendary ancient commander Hannibal. With the help of cruelty, he maintained order in his multinational army, which fought for several years in a Roman foreign land. Moreover, it was not tyranny, because even executions and reprisals against those guilty of violating the laws were fair, and no one, regardless of their position, could receive immunity. Machiavelli believed that the cruelty of the ruler is justified only if it is not outright robbery of the population and violence against women.

Death of a thinker

After writing The Sovereign, the famous thinker devoted the last years of his life to the creation of the History of Florence, in which he returned to his favorite genre. He died in 1527. Despite the posthumous fame of the author, the place of his grave is still unknown.

One can write and talk endlessly about the merits of Niccolo Machiavelli to his native Italy and history in general. The politician, thinker and writer left behind a unique treatise, plays, reasoning, lyrical works. Machiavelli's tombstone reads:

"No epitaph can express the greatness of this name."

Childhood and youth

In the biography of Machiavelli, there are not many facts about parents and childhood. Niccolo was born on May 3, 1469. He lived with his family in the village of San Casciano in Val di Pesa (Florence). The mother of Bartolomei di Stefano Neli raised four children: Primavera, Margherita, Niccolò and Totto. The father of the family, Bernardo di Niccolo Machiavelli, worked as a lawyer.

The surname Machiavelli is one of the most ancient and noble in Tuscany, but the title did not affect the financial situation. The lawyer's family lived in poverty. Education allowed the young man to study the classics in Latin and Italian (Titus Livius, Josephus Flavius, Theodosius Macrobius). Niccolo did not know the ancient Greek language, but studied the works of Thucydides, Polybius in Latin translation.

In the biography of Niccolo Machiavelli, there are not many episodes from childhood. The thinker himself wrote that in his youth he became interested in politics and did not remain indifferent to the political situation in the country. From memorable events: the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII, the Medici family in exile, the managerial views of the reformer and monk Girolamo Savonarola.

By the way, in a letter intended for Ricardo Becky (ambassador from Florence in Rome), Machiavelli was critical of Savonarola's actions.

After the expulsion of Piero di Lorenzo Medici, the ruler of Florence (son of the statesman Lorenzo the Magnificent), on the fact of high treason, Savonarola with republican convictions turned out to be the head of Florence. The policy of the new ruler Machiavelli did not suit.

Literature

The life and work of Niccolo Machiavelli fell on the turbulent Renaissance: the Pope had the opportunity to own the army, and foreign states (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire) were in power of Italian cities. Alliances often changed, mercenaries went over to the side of the enemy, and power changed every few weeks, Rome fell.

In 1498, Machiavelli began serving the state as secretary and ambassador, and retained leadership after the execution of Savonarola. Since 1502, the thinker has been observing the effective ways of urban planning of a politician. Although the attempt to establish his own state in central Italy failed, Machiavelli openly admired the politician's methods.

Cruel and firm in decisions, Borgia skillfully looked for profit in any situation, coolly carried out his plans. This policy coincided with the views of Machiavelli. In some historical references, there are authoritative opinions that during the year of close communication with Cesare Borgia, Niccolo had the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bgoverning the state, despite moral principles. Then the formation of the doctrine of the state, reflected later in the treatise "The Sovereign", begins.

In the Renaissance, at the time of scientific discoveries, the development of natural philosophy is gaining momentum. Medieval views and ideas fade into the background, giving way to new teachings. Great influence of theories, and Cusa. Now God is identified with nature.

Political upheavals and scientific achievements could not but affect the works of Machiavelli. In 1513, the politician was arrested as an accomplice in a conspiracy against the Medici. Guilt was never proven, Machiavelli was at large. At this time, he begins to work on treatises.

"The Emperor" is not a huge multi-volume work, but a small book that made the name of Niccolò Machiavelli immortal. This treatise expresses the main idea of ​​the Italian politician: strength and cold calculation are above the moral values ​​of a statesman. In the name of a worthy goal that brings good, morality goes by the wayside.

The book was published only after the death of the author. Contemporaries and many historians had the impression of Machiavelli as a formidable unprincipled tyrant. However, there are also supporters of the thinker's views who consider him democratic. The political anthropology of Machiavelli implies a politician as a person with a predominance of the animal principle, capable of forgetting about ethics and morality for the benefit of himself and the people.

The Sovereign, written around 1513 (there is no exact record of this), is a guide to government, detailing how to hold and exercise power. For the first time the sovereign was considered as a person.

The works of Niccolo Machiavelli are a unique contribution to sociology and political science. The Italian thinker was the first to put forward the idea that every man is obliged to perform military service. About this - in the work "On the art of war."

In addition to treatises on state power and politics, Machiavelli has other literature. In 1518, the comedy La Mandragola ("Mandrake") was written. In 1965, a film adaptation of Mandrake was released about the cunning Kallimachus, who desired the wife of the lawyer Nikiya. Lucretia is inaccessible and proud. But in the lawyer's family, grief: the beauty's husband is barren. Callimache promises to cure the disease with the root of the mandrake and cunningly achieves a night together with Lucretia.

The writings of Niccolo Machiavelli are based solely on experience and observation. To preach a philosophy of life, the thinker believed, is possible only objectively and logically. The works of the Italian philosopher have long been disassembled into quotations and aphorisms. It is difficult to overestimate his contribution to history.

Personal life

In the winter of 1501, the acting diplomat Machiavelli arrived in Florence on another state mission. There he chose as his wife Marietta Di Luigi Corsini, a girl from a poor family.

This marriage was mutually beneficial, aimed primarily at improving the welfare of the two families. However, the relationship between the spouses was warm. Marietta bore him five children.

However, this did not prevent the politician from making numerous romantic connections with other women on trips abroad.

Death

Niccolo Machiavelli devoted his life to career and politics, dreamed of the prosperity of Florence. However, none of the expectations came true. In 1527, the Spaniards sacked Rome, and the new government no longer needed Machiavelli.

These events shook the health of the thinker. In June 1527 Niccolo died. Death occurred in San Casciano (near Florence). Where is the burial of the Italian, no one can say for sure. However, in Florence, in the church of the Holy Cross, there is a tombstone in memory of Machiavelli.

Tombstone of Niccolo Machiavelli in the Church of the Holy Cross, Florence

In 2012, a commemorative documentary film was made in memory of Niccolò Machiavelli.

In addition, the personality of the great Italian is mentioned in films and TV shows. Among them: "The Life of Leonardo da Vinci", "Borgia", "Niccolò Machiavelli - Prince of Politics". Machiavelli's name remains immortal in fiction ("Then and Now", Jorge Moliste "Borgia Keeper of Secrets").

Bibliography

• 1499 – Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa
• 1502 - "On how to deal with the rebellious inhabitants of Valdichiana"
• 1502 - "Description of how Duke Valentino got rid of Vitellozo Vitelli Oliverette Da Fermo, Signor Paolo and Duke Gravina Orsini"
• 1502 – Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro
• 1513 - "The Sovereign"
• 1518 - "Mandrake"
• 1520 - Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze
• 1531 - "Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius"

MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO(Machiavelli, Niccolo) (1469–1527), Italian writer and diplomat. Born May 3, 1469 in Florence, the second son in the family of a notary. Machiavelli's parents, although they belonged to an ancient Tuscan family, were people of very modest means. The boy grew up in the atmosphere of the "golden age" of Florence under the regime of Lorenzo de' Medici. Little is known about Machiavelli's childhood. From his writings it is clear that he was an astute observer of the political events of his time; the most significant of these was the invasion of Italy in 1494 by Charles VIII of France, the expulsion of the Medici family from Florence and the establishment of a republic, initially under the rule of Girolamo Savonarola.

In 1498, Machiavelli was hired as a secretary in the second office, the College of Ten and the magistracy of the Signoria - posts to which he was elected with constant success until 1512. Machiavelli devoted himself entirely to an ungrateful and poorly paid service. In 1506, he added to his many duties the work of organizing the Florentine militia (Ordinanza) and the Council of Nine, which controls its activities, established to a large extent at his insistence. Machiavelli believed that a civilian army should be created that could replace the mercenaries, who were one of the reasons for the military weakness of the Italian states. Throughout his service, Machiavelli was used for diplomatic and military assignments in the Florentine lands and for collecting information during foreign trips. For Florence, which continued the pro-French policy of Savonarola, it was a time of constant crises: Italy was torn apart by internal strife and suffered from foreign invasions.

Machiavelli was close to the head of the republic, the great Gonfalonier of Florence, Piero Soderini, and although he did not have the authority to negotiate and make decisions, the missions that were entrusted to him were often delicate and very important. Among them, embassies to several royal courts should be noted. In 1500, Machiavelli arrived at the court of King Louis XII of France to discuss the terms of assistance in continuing the war with the rebellious Pisa, which had fallen away from Florence. Twice he was at the court of Cesare Borgia, in Urbino and Imola (1502), in order to stay abreast of the actions of the Duke of Romagna, whose increased power worried the Florentines. In Rome in 1503 he oversaw the election of a new pope (Julia II), and while at the court of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1507, he discussed the size of the Florentine tribute. Actively participated in many other events of that time.

During this "diplomatic" period of Machiavelli's life, he acquired experience and knowledge of political institutions and human psychology, on which - as well as on the study of the history of Florence and ancient Rome - his writings are based. In his reports and letters of that time, you can find most of the ideas that he subsequently developed and which he gave a more refined form. Machiavelli often felt a sense of bitterness, not so much because of familiarity with the downside of foreign policy, but because of the divisions in Florence itself and its indecisive policy towards powerful powers.

His own career faltered in 1512 when Florence was defeated by the Holy League formed by Julius II against the French in alliance with Spain. The Medici returned to power, and Machiavelli was forced to leave public service. He was followed, he was imprisoned on charges of conspiring against the Medici in 1513, he was tortured with a rope. In the end, Machiavelli retired to the modest estate of Albergaccio inherited from his father in Percussine near San Casciano on the way to Rome. Some time later, when Julius II died and Leo X took his place, the anger of the Medici softened. Machiavelli began to visit friends in the city; he took an active part in literary meetings and even cherished the hope of returning to the service (in 1520 he received the post of state historiographer, to which he was appointed by the University of Florence).

The shock experienced by Machiavelli after his dismissal and the collapse of the republic, which he served so faithfully and zealously, prompted him to take up his pen. The character did not allow long to remain inactive; Deprived of the opportunity to do what he loves - politics, Machiavelli wrote works of considerable literary and historical value during this period. Major masterpiece - Sovereign (Il Principe), a brilliant and well-known treatise, written mainly in 1513 (published posthumously in 1532). The author originally titled the book About principalities (De Principatibus) and dedicated it to Giuliano de' Medici, brother of Leo X, but he died in 1516, and the dedication was addressed to Lorenzo de' Medici (1492-1519). Historical work of Machiavelli Reflections on the first decade of Titus Livius (Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio) was written in the period 1513–1517. Among other works - Art of War (Dell "arte della guerra, 1521, written in 1519–1520), History of Florence (Historie fiorentine, was written in 1520-1525), two theatrical plays - Mandrake (Mandragola probably 1518; original title - Commedia di Gallimaco e di Lucrezia) and clicia(probably in 1524-1525), as well as a short story Belfagor(in the manuscript Story, written before 1520). He also wrote poetry. Although the debate about Machiavelli's identity and motives continues to this day, he is by far one of the greatest Italian writers.

It is difficult to assess the works of Machiavelli, primarily because of the complexity of his personality and the ambiguity of ideas, which still cause the most controversial interpretations. Before us is an intellectually gifted person, an unusually insightful observer who had a rare intuition. He was capable of deep feeling and devotion, exceptionally honest and industrious, and his writings reveal a love for the joys of life and a lively sense of humor, though usually bitter. Yet the name Machiavelli is often used as a synonym for betrayal, deceit and political immorality.

In part, such assessments are caused by religious reasons, the condemnation of his works by both Protestants and Catholics. The reason was the criticism of Christianity in general and the papacy in particular; according to Machiavelli, the papacy undermined military prowess and played a negative role, causing the fragmentation and humiliation of Italy. On top of that, his views were often distorted by commentators, and his phrases about establishing and protecting statehood were taken out of context and quoted in order to reinforce the common image of Machiavelli as a malicious adviser to sovereigns.

Besides, Sovereign was considered his most characteristic, if not the only work; from this book it is very easy to select passages that clearly prove the author's approval of despotism and are in striking contradiction with traditional moral norms. To some extent, this can be explained by the fact that Sovereign emergency measures are proposed in an emergency; however, Machiavelli's aversion to half-measures, as well as a craving for a spectacular presentation of ideas, also played a role; its oppositions lead to bold and unexpected generalizations. At the same time, he did consider politics to be an art that did not depend on morality and religion, at least when it came to means rather than ends, and made himself vulnerable to accusations of cynicism by trying to find universal rules for political action that were would be based on observation of the actual behavior of people, and not reasoning about how it should be.

Machiavelli argued that such rules are found in history and confirmed by contemporary political events. In the dedication to Lorenzo de' Medici at the beginning Sovereign Machiavelli writes that the most valuable gift that could be offered is the comprehension of the deeds of great people, acquired by "many years of experience in the affairs of the present and the incessant study of the affairs of the past." Machiavelli uses history to reinforce, through carefully selected examples, the maxims of political action that he formulated from his own experience rather than historical studies.

Sovereign- the work of a dogmatist, not an empiricist; still less is it the work of a person applying for a position (as has often been assumed). This is not a cold call to despotism, but a book imbued with high feeling (despite the rationality of presentation), indignation and passion. Machiavelli seeks to show the difference between authoritarian and despotic modes of government. Emotions come to a head at the end of the treatise; the author appeals to a strong hand, the savior of Italy, the new sovereign, capable of creating a powerful state and freeing Italy from the foreign domination of the "barbarians".

Machiavelli's remarks about the need for ruthless solutions, if they seem dictated by the political situation of that era, remain relevant and widely debated in our time. Otherwise, his direct contribution to political theory is insignificant, although many of the thinker's ideas stimulated the development of later theories. The practical impact of his writings on statesmen is also doubtful, despite the fact that the latter often relied on the ideas of Machiavelli (often distorting them) about the priority of the interests of the state and the methods that a ruler should use in gaining (acquista) and retaining (mantiene) power. As a matter of fact, Machiavelli was read and quoted by adherents of autocracy; however, in practice, autocrats managed without the ideas of the Italian thinker.

These ideas were of greater importance for Italian nationalists during the era of the Risorgimento (political revival - from the first outbreaks of the Carbonari in the 1920s to unification in 1870) and during the period of fascist rule. Machiavelli was mistakenly seen as the forerunner of the centralized Italian state. However, like most Italians of that time, he was not a patriot of the nation, but of his city-state.

In any case, it is dangerous to attribute to Machiavelli the ideas of other eras and thinkers. The study of his works should begin with the understanding that they arose in the context of the history of Italy, more specifically, the history of Florence in the era of wars of conquest. Sovereign was conceived as a textbook for autocrats, significant for all times. However, when considering it critically, one should not forget about the specific time of writing and the personality of the author. Reading the treatise in this light will help to understand some obscure passages. The fact remains, however, that Machiavelli's reasoning is not always consistent, and many of his apparent contradictions must be recognized as valid. Machiavelli recognizes both the freedom of a person and his "fortune", a fate that an energetic and strong person can still somehow fight. On the one hand, the thinker sees a hopelessly corrupted being in a person, and on the other, he passionately believes in the ability of a ruler endowed with virtu (perfect personality, valor, full strength, mind and will) to free Italy from foreign domination; defending human dignity, he at the same time gives evidence of the deepest depravity of man.

It should also be briefly mentioned reasoning, in which Machiavelli focuses on republican forms of government. The work claims to formulate the eternal laws of political science derived from the study of history, but it cannot be understood without taking into account the indignation caused by Machiavelli's political corruption in Florence and the inability to rule of Italian despots, who presented themselves as the best alternative to chaos, created by their predecessors in power. At the heart of all Machiavelli's works is the dream of a strong state, not necessarily republican, but based on the support of the people and capable of resisting foreign invasion.

Main Topics Stories of Florence(whose eight books were presented to Pope Clement VII of the Medici in 1525): the need for general consent to strengthen the state and its inevitable decomposition with the growth of political strife. Machiavelli cites facts described in historical chronicles, but seeks to reveal the true causes of historical events, rooted in the psychology of specific people and the conflict of class interests; he needed history in order to learn lessons that he believed would be useful for all time. Machiavelli, apparently, was the first to propose the concept of historical cycles.

History of Florence, characterized by a dramatic narrative, tells the story of the city-state from the birth of the Italian medieval civilization to the beginning of the French invasions at the end of the 15th century. This work is imbued with the spirit of patriotism and determination to find rational, and not supernatural, causes of historical events. However, the author belongs to his time, and references to signs and wonders can be found in this work.

Machiavelli's correspondence is of extraordinary value; especially interesting are the letters he wrote to his friend Francesco Vettori, mainly in 1513-1514, when he was in Rome. You can find everything in these letters - from descriptions of the minutiae of domestic life to obscene anecdotes and political analysis. The most famous letter is dated December 10, 1513, which depicts an ordinary day in the life of Machiavelli and gives an invaluable explanation of how the idea came about. Sovereign. The letters reflect not only the ambitions and anxieties of the author, but also the liveliness, humor and sharpness of his thinking.

These qualities are present in all his writings, serious and comedic (for example, in mandrake). Opinion differs on the stage value of this play (it is still sometimes performed, and not without success) and the evil satire it contains. However, Machiavelli also carries out some of his ideas here - about the success that accompanies determination, and the inevitable collapse that awaits the hesitant and those who wishful thinking. Her characters - including one of the most famous simpletons in literature, the deceived Messer Nitsch - are recognizable as typical characters, although they give the impression of the results of original creativity. The comedy is based on living Florentine life, its manners and customs.

The genius of Machiavelli also created fiction Biography of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca, compiled in 1520 and depicting the rise to power of the famous condottiere at the beginning of the 14th century. In 1520 Machiavelli visited Lucca as a trade representative on behalf of Cardinal Lorenzo Strozzi (to whom he dedicated the dialogue On the art of war) and, as usual, studied the political institutions and history of the city. One of the fruits of his stay in Lucca was biography, depicting a ruthless ruler and famous for its romantic exposition of ideas about the art of war. In this small work, the author's style is as refined and bright as in other works of the writer.

By the time Machiavelli created the main works, humanism in Italy had already passed the peak of its heyday. The influence of the humanists is noticeable in the style Sovereign; in this political work, we can see the interest characteristic of the entire Renaissance not in God, but in man, personality. However, intellectually and emotionally, Machiavelli was far from the philosophical and religious interests of the humanists, their abstract, essentially medieval approach to politics. Machiavelli's language is different from that of the humanists; the problems he discusses hardly occupied humanistic thought.

Machiavelli is often compared to his contemporary Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), also a diplomat and historian immersed in political theory and practice. Far from being as aristocratic in birth and temperament, Machiavelli shared many of the basic ideas and emotions of the humanist philosopher. Both of them are characterized by a sense of the catastrophe in Italian history due to the French invasion and indignation at the state of fragmentation that did not allow Italy to resist subjugation. However, the differences and discrepancies between them are also significant. Guicciardini criticized Machiavelli for his persistent appeal to modern rulers to follow ancient models; he believed in the role of compromise in politics. In essence, his views are more realistic and cynical than those of Machiavelli.

Machiavelli's hopes for the heyday of Florence and his own career were deceived. In 1527, after Rome was given to the Spaniards for plunder, which once again showed the full extent of the fall of Italy, republican rule was restored in Florence, which lasted three years. The dream of Machiavelli, who returned from the front, to get the position of secretary of the College of Ten did not come true. The new government did not notice him anymore. The spirit of Machiavelli was broken, his health was undermined, and the life of the thinker ended in Florence on June 22, 1527.

Niccolò Machiavelli (Machiavelli, Italian. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli). Born May 3, 1469 in Florence - died June 21, 1527 there. Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician. He held the post of secretary of the second office in Florence, was responsible for the diplomatic relations of the republic, and the author of military-theoretical works. He was a supporter of a strong state power, for the strengthening of which he allowed the use of any means, which he expressed in the famous work "The Sovereign", published in 1532.

Niccolò Machiavelli was born in the village of San Casciano, near the city-state of Florence, in 1469, the son of Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli (1426-1500), a lawyer, and Bartolomei di Stefano Neli (1441-1496).

He had two older sisters - Primavera (1465), Margarita (1468), and a younger brother Totto (1475).

His education gave him a thorough knowledge of the Latin and Italian classics. He was familiar with the works of Josephus Flavius,. He did not study ancient Greek, but read Latin translations, and from which he drew inspiration for his historical treatises.

He became interested in politics from his youth, as evidenced by a letter dated March 9, 1498, the second that has come down to us, in which he addresses his friend Ricardo Becky, the Florentine ambassador in Rome, with a critical description of the actions of Girolamo Savonarola. The first surviving letter, dated December 2, 1497, was addressed to Cardinal Giovanni Lopez, asking him to recognize the disputed lands of the Pazzi family for his family.

Biographer Roberto Ridolfi describes Machiavelli as follows: “He was a slender man, of medium height, of a slim build. The hair was black, white skin, small head, thin face, high forehead. Very bright eyes and thin compressed lips, which always seemed to smile a little ambiguously..

In the life of Niccolo Machiavelli, two stages can be distinguished: during the first part of his life, he is mainly involved in public affairs. From 1512, the second stage begins, marked by the forced removal of Machiavelli from active politics.

Machiavelli lived in a troubled era, when the Pope could have an entire army, and the rich city-states of Italy fell one after another under the rule of foreign states - France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant changes in alliances, mercenaries who went over to the side of the enemy without warning, when power, having existed for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event in the series of these erratic upheavals was the fall of Rome in 1527. Wealthy cities like Florence and Genoa suffered much the same as Rome did 5 centuries ago when it was burnt down by the Germanic barbarian army.

In 1494 the French King Charles VIII entered Italy and arrived in Florence in November. Piero di Lorenzo Medici, whose family ruled the city for almost 60 years, was expelled as a traitor. The monk Savonarola was placed at the head of the embassy to the French king.

During this troubled time, Savonarola became the real master of Florence. Under his influence, the Florentine Republic was restored in 1494, and republican institutions were also returned. At the suggestion of Savonarola, the "Great Council" and the "Council of Eighty" were established. 4 years later with the support of Savonarola, Machiavelli entered the civil service as secretary and ambassador (in 1498).

Despite the quick disgrace and execution of Savonarola, six months later Machiavelli was again re-elected to the Council of Eighty, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs, already thanks to the authoritative recommendation of the Prime Secretary of the Republic, Marcello Adriani, a well-known humanist who was his teacher.

Between 1499 and 1512 he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and to the papal court in Rome.

On January 14, 1501, Machiavelli was able to return to Florence again, where he married Marietta di Luigi Corsini., who came from a family that occupied the same step on the social ladder as the Machiavelli family. Their marriage was an act that united two families in a mutually beneficial union, but Niccolo felt deep sympathy for his wife, they had five children. Being abroad on diplomatic business for a long period, Machiavelli usually started relationships with other women, for whom he also had tender feelings.

From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the effective town planning methods of the clerical soldier Cesare Borgia, an extremely able military leader and statesman, whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. His main tools were courage, prudence, self-confidence, firmness, and sometimes cruelty.

Historians believe that it was the months spent in the company of Cesare Borgia that served as the impetus for the birth of Machiavelli's idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"the skill of governing the state, independent of moral principles", which was subsequently reflected in the treatise "The Sovereign".

The death of Pope Alexander VI, father of Cesare Borgia, deprived Cesare of financial and political resources. The political ambitions of the Vatican were traditionally limited by the fact that communes were scattered to the north of the Papal States, de facto ruled by independent princes from local feudal families - Montefeltro, Malatesta and Bentivoglio. Alternating sieges with political assassinations, Cesare and Alexander in a few years united all of Umbria, Emilia and Romagna under their rule. But the duchy of Romagna again began to disintegrate into small possessions, while the noble families of Imola and Rimini took possession of Emilia.

After a short 27-day pontificate of Pius III, Machiavelli was sent to Rome on October 24, 1503, where at the conclave on November 1, Julius II was elected pope, marked by history as one of the most militant popes.

In a letter dated 24 November, Machiavelli attempted to divine the political intentions of the new pope, whose main opponents were Venice and France, which played into the hands of Florence, which was wary of Venetian expansionist ambitions. On the same day, November 24, in Rome, Machiavelli receives news of the birth of his second child, Bernardo.

In the house of the gonfalonier Soderini, Machiavelli discusses plans to create a people's militia in Florence to replace the city guard, consisting of mercenary soldiers who seemed to Machiavelli to be traitors. Machiavelli was the first in the history of Florence to create a professional army. It was thanks to the creation of a combat-ready professional army in Florence that Soderini managed to return the Republic of Pisa, which had seceded in 1494.

Between 1503 and 1506 Machiavelli was in charge of the Florentine guard, including the defense of the city. He did not trust mercenaries (a position explained in detail in Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius and in The Sovereign) and preferred a militia formed from citizens.

By 1512, the Holy League, under the leadership of Pope Julius II, had secured the withdrawal of French troops from Italy. The pope then turned his troops against France's Italian allies. Florence was "granted" by Julius II to his loyal supporter, Cardinal Giovanni Medici, who commanded the troops in the last battle with the French.

On September 1, 1512, Giovanni de' Medici, the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, entered the city of his ancestors, restoring his family's rule over Florence. The Republic was abolished.

Machiavelli fell into disgrace, and in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy and arrested.

Despite the severity of his imprisonment and torture, he denied any involvement and was eventually released. He retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began to write treatises which secured his place in the history of political philosophy.

In November 1520 he was called to Florence and received the position of historiographer. In 1520-1525 he wrote the History of Florence.

Machiavelli died at San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence, in 1527. The location of his grave is unknown. However, a cenotaph in his honor is in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The inscription is engraved on the monument: No epitaph can express all the greatness of this name.

The writings of Niccolo Machiavelli:

"The Sovereign" (Il Principe)

Reasoning:

"Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius" (Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio)
Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)
"On how to deal with the rebellious inhabitants of Valdichiana" (Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati) (1502)
"Description of how Duke Valentino got rid of Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliveretto Da Fermo, Signor Paolo and Duke Gravina Orsini" (Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell' ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc.) (1502)
Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502)
Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520)

Dialogues:

Della lingua (1514)

Lyrics:

Decennale primo poem (1506)
Decennale secondo poem (1509)
Asino d'oro (1517), verse arrangement of The Golden Ass

Biographies:

"The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca" (Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca) (1520)

Other:

Ritratti delle cose dell' Alemagna (1508-1512)
Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510)
"On the art of war" (1519-1520)
Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520)
History of Florence (1520-1525), multi-volume history of Florence
Frammenti storici (1525)

Plays:

Andria (1517) - translation of Terence's comedy
La Mandragola, comedy (1518)
Clizia (1525), comedy in prose.

Novels: